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RECEPTORS AND SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
1.1
Section of Human Physiology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Perugia School of Medicine, Perugia, Italy
Submitted 11 May 2006 ; accepted in final form 28 July 2006
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ABSTRACT |
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1.1 subunits form heteromeric channels at hippocampal mossy fiber boutons from which Zn2+ ions are released into the synaptic cleft in a Ca2+-dependent fashion. The sensitivity of this macromolecular channel complex to Zn2+ is unknown. Here, we show that this heteromeric channel possesses a high-affinity (<10 µM) and a low-affinity (<0.5 mM) site for Zn2+, which are likely to regulate channel availability at distinct presynaptic membranes. Furthermore, the EA1 mutation F184C, located within the S1 segment of the Kv1.1 subunit, markedly decreased the equilibrium dissociation constants for Zn2+ binding to the high- and low-affinity sites. The functional characterization of the Zn2+ effects on heteromeric channels harboring the F184C mutation also showed that this ion significantly 1) slowed the activation rate of the channel, 2) increased the time to reach peak current amplitude, 3) decreased the rate and amount of current undergoing N-type inactivation, and 4) slowed the repriming of the channel compared with wild-type channels. These results demonstrate that the EA1 mutation F184C will not only sensitize the homomeric Kv1.1 channel to extracellular Zn2+, but it will also endow heteromeric channels with a higher sensitivity to this metal ion. During the vesicular release of Zn2+, its effects will be in addition to the intrinsic gating defects caused by the mutation, which is likely to exacerbate the symptoms by impairing the integration and transmission of signals within specific brain areas. shaker channel gating; episodic ataxia type 1; Xenopus laevis cocytes
When EA1 subunits coassemble with wild-type subunits or with subunits belonging to the same K+ channel subfamily (e.g., Kv1.2), the resulting heteromeric proteins are endowed with partial EA1 phenotypes (16, 46). Individuals carrying the F184C mutation showed generalized motor seizures, in addition to typical EA1 symptoms (11, 60). This phenylalanine-to-cysteine substitution is located at the COOH-terminal portion of the first transmembrane domain (S1) of the Kv1.1 subunit. In previous studies, we and others showed that the F184C mutation shifted the half-maximal activation voltage (V1/2) of Kv1.1 homomeric channels 
25 mV to more depolarized potentials, and slowed the time constants of activation by nearly twofold (1, 9, 14, 65). Recently, we also showed that this mutation sensitizes homomeric Kv1.1 channels to extracellular Zn2+ (14). However, we did not investigate whether this mutation also affects the Zn2+ sensitivity of channels composed of Kv1.4, Kv1.1, and Kv1.1 subunits, inasmuch as these subunits are likely to form a macromolecular channel complex in several brain structures in which Zn2+ plays a role (24, 44, 48, 50, 51, 59, 62).
Specific neurons are able to store Zn2+ within vesicles. Their release into the synaptic cleft is regulated by the frequency and intensity of the stimuli by means of Ca2+-dependent mechanisms. Neuron excitability is affected by Zn2+, which modulates the activity of selected members of ligand- and voltage-gated ion channels (for reviews see Refs. 20, 25, 40, 54, 56, 57). The location of this ion and its release pattern have been established across the brain by use of Zn2+ fluorophores, radiolabeled Zn2+, and selective chelators (20, 21, 30, 35, 58, 63). In particular, Zn2+ is released from mossy fiber terminals in the hippocampus (4, 61, 64). A growing body of evidence indicates that Kv1.1, Kv1.4, and, Kv1.1 subunits form heteromeric channels at hippocampal mossy fiber boutons (44, 48, 49, 51, 53, 59). Moreover, patch-clamp recordings from such presynaptic terminals suggest that this macromolecular channel complex regulates the activity-dependent spike broadening of hippocampal mossy fiber boutons and, as a consequence, the amount of neurotransmitter released during high-frequency stimuli (23). Thus an altered Zn2+-mediated modulation of heteromeric channel activity may exert a remarkable impact on the hippocampal integration and transmission of signals.
Here we show that the EA1 mutation F184C will not only sensitize the homomeric Kv1.1 channel to extracellular Zn2+, but it will also endow heteromeric channels, composed of human Kv1.1, Kv1.4, and Kv1.1 subunits, with a higher sensitivity to Zn2+, which also significantly modifies several biophysical properties of the mutated channel.
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METHODS |
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-subunits were kindly provided by Prof. Olaf Pongs (Institut für Neurale Signalverarbeitung, Center for Molecular Neurobiology Hamburg, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany), and the human Kv1.4 subunit was cloned in our laboratory. To study the activity of channels composed of two human Kv1.1 and two human Kv1.4 subunits, the relevant cDNAs were linked as dimers (15). To concatenate the human Kv1.4 wild-type subunits with the episodic ataxia human Kv1.1 subunits as dimers, the stop codon of the first subunit was removed and a linker encoding 10 glutamine residues was inserted between the last codon of the 5'-subunit coding sequence and the initiator codon of the following subunit. This was achieved using a sequential PCR protocol similar to that used by Horton et al. (29). Briefly, junctions were generated by overlap extension of the PCR primers that also encoded the glutamine linker. The dimers were constructed in pGEMA, a modified version of pGEM9zf (Promega), with a stretch of 40 A-T base pairs inserted just upstream of the Tth111I site. The QuikChange Site-Directed Mutagenesis kit (Stratagene) was used according to the manufacturer's instructions to introduce the F184C mutation into the human Kv1.1 subunit cDNA. The nucleotide sequences of all linked subunits and throughout the joined segments were determined by automated sequencing. Oligonucleotides were obtained from EUROBIO (Milan, Italy). All channel subunits were subcloned into the oocyte's expression vector pBF, which provides 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions from the Xenopus -globin gene flanking a polylinker containing multiple restriction sites. Capped mRNAs were synthesized in vitro using the SP6 mMESSAGE mMACHINE kit (Ambion). Oocyte preparation and RNA injection. Procedures involving Xenopus laevis and their care were conducted in conformity with institutional guidelines, which are in compliance with national (D.L. no. 116, G.U., Suppl. 40, 18 February 1992) and international [EEC Council Directive 86/609, OJ L 358,1, 12 December 1987; National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NIH Publ. No. 85-23, 1985); and "Guidelines for the Use of Animals in Biomedical Research" (Thromb Haemost 58: 1078–1084, 1987)] laws and policies.
The animals underwent no more than two surgical operations, with an interval of 
3 wk between the procedures. X. laevis were anesthetized with an aerated solution containing 5 mM 3-aminobenzoic acid ethyl ester methansulfonate salt and 60 mM sodium bicarbonate (pH 7.3). The ovary was dissected, and the oocytes were digested in OR-2 solution containing collagenase A (Sigma; 0.5 U/ml). Stage V–VI oocytes were isolated and stored at 16°C in fresh ND96 medium (96 mM NaCl, 2 mM KCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 1.8 mM CaCl2, 5 mM HEPES, and 50 µg/ml gentamicin).
After 24 h, a nanoliter injector (WPI, Nanoject, Drummond, Broomall, PA) was used to microinject in vitro transcribed mRNAs into the oocytes, which were then incubated at 16°C. Typically, every oocyte was injected with 50 nl of a solution containing the relevant mRNA. The amount of mRNAs was quantified using a spectrophotometer and by ethidium bromide staining. Human Kv
1.4-1.1 and human Kv1 mRNAs were injected into the oocytes in a ratio of 1:20–1:40.
Electrophysiology.
Electrophysiological recordings and data analysis were performed as previously described (14, 15). Briefly, two-electrode voltage-clamp recordings were obtained from Xenopus oocytes at 22°C 1–8 days after injection. An amplifier (GeneClamp 500, Axon Instruments) interfaced to a personal computer with an ITC-16 interface (Instrutech) was used. Microelectrodes were filled with 3 M KCl; resistance of the microelectrodes was 0.1–0.5 M
. The recording solution contained (in mM) 96 NaCl, 2 KCl, 1 MgCl2, 1.8 CaCl2, and 5 HEPES (pH 7.4). Currents were evoked by voltage commands from a holding potential of –80 mV. The recordings were filtered at 2 kHz and acquired at 5 kHz with Pulse software (HEKA Elektronik). Data analysis was performed using IGOR (Wavemetrics), PulseFit (HEKA Elektronik), and KaleidaGraph (Synergy Software) software. Leak and capacitative currents were subtracted using a P/4 protocol. An unpaired Student's test was used to determine the statistical significance. P < 0.05 was considered significant.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONGRANTSREFERENCES |
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1.1 subunits.
To investigate the effects of the F184C mutation on the biophysical properties of heteromeric channels and to assess their sensitivity to extracellular Zn2+, the human Kv1.4 subunit was concatenated with the Kv1.1 wild-type or Kv1.1F184C, as dimers, by means of a flexible glutamine linker. Two constructs were generated: Kv1.4-1.1 wild-type (WT) and Kv1.4-1.1F184C (F184C). The expression of these concatemers in Xenopus oocytes gave rise to functional delayed-rectifier currents, presumably arising from a homogeneous population of heterotetrameric channels composed of two subunits of each type. Figure 1A shows a representative current family recorded in two-electrode voltage-clamp configuration from a cell expressing WT channels. These currents were characterized by rapid N-type inactivation conferred by the Kv1.4 subunit, which possesses an inactivation particle at its NH2 terminus (Fig. 1, A and inset) (39, 43, 50). The dimeric channel was also coexpressed with the auxiliary subunit Kv1.1. As expected, the current family recorded from these cells showed that the human Kv1.1 subunit further accelerated the inactivation of the channel by providing four additional inactivation particles (Fig. 1, B and inset) (26, 38, 39, 47, 69). The current traces recorded from cells expressing the F184C channels showed altered kinetics of activation and inactivation in the presence and absence of Kv1.1 subunits (Fig. 1, C and D; see below).
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1.1 subunits, macroscopic currents were recorded before and during the superfusion of a solution containing ZnCl2 at several concentrations into the recording chamber. The concentration-response curves for Zn2+-induced inhibition were calculated at 0 and +60 mV (Fig. 2). However, the open probabilities of WT and F184C channels, with or without Kv1.1 subunits, are maximal at +60 mV before and after the application of Zn2+, which shifted the V1/2 of channel activation only 3–10 mV to more depolarized potentials (not shown). This test potential also corresponds approximately to the peak of the action potential, and it allows us to obtain pathophysiologically relevant information. The Zn2+ concentration/inhibition data points for WT channels were best fitted by the sum of two Hill equations in the presence or absence of Kv1.1 subunits (Fig. 2). These results revealed, first, that heteromeric channels composed of Kv1.4-1.1 or Kv1.4-1.1/Kv1.1 subunits possess a high- and a low-affinity binding site for Zn2+. The low- and high-affinity equilibrium dissociation constants for Zn2+ binding (KZn) were calculated at 0 and 60 mV (Table 1). Unexpectedly, we observed that the auxiliary Kv1.1 subunits increased the sensitivity of WT channels to Zn2+-induced inhibition by decreasing the low-affinity KZn 2.7- and 3.8-fold at 0 and +60 mV, respectively (Table 1). The concentration-response relations were shifted leftward by the F184C mutation (Fig. 2). Overall, the F184C mutation significantly decreased the KZn values of the high- and low-affinity binding sites to Zn2+-induced current inhibition of Kv1.4-1.1 and Kv1.4-1.1/Kv1.1 channels (Table 1). Moreover, the low- and high-affinity KZn values of WT and F184C channels were markedly smaller at less depolarized potentials (Table 1) (24). Taken together, these findings imply that Zn2+ may regulate the transmission of signals by modulating the availability of heteromeric WT channels at distinct synapses. The availability of F184C channels is further reduced by Zn2+ because of their higher sensitivity for this metal ion.
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1.1 subunits apparently accelerated the activation kinetics of WT channels (Fig. 3E, Table 2), and, again, the F184C mutation by itself slowed the channel opening kinetics (Fig. 3E, Table 2). The application of 10 µM Zn2+ markedly increased the time constants of activation (Fig. 3E, Table 2) and the time to reach peak current of F184C/Kv1.1 channels (Fig. 3F, Table 2).
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1.1. Fast inactivation regulates the firing properties of neurons and their response to input stimuli. Thus the effects of the F184C mutation and Zn2+ on the biophysical properties of the channel were investigated. Figure 4, A–D, shows representative currents, evoked at +60 mV, before and after application of 10 µM Zn2+ for WT and F184C channels with or without the coexpression with Kv1.1 subunits. These superimposed traces suggest that the F184C mutation by itself and the superfusion of Zn2+ changed the amount and the rate of N-type inactivation induced by the Kv1.4 and Kv1.1 subunits. The amount of inactivation was then quantified as the ratio of final (at the end of the 1-s depolarizing pulse at +60 mV) to peak current amplitude. The amount of F184C current undergoing inactivation in the presence or absence of auxiliary subunits was significantly decreased compared with the amount of WT current (Fig. 4, E and F). The application of 10 µM Zn2+ reduced these amounts markedly (Fig. 4, E and F). To determine the inactivation rates, the decaying current traces for WT and F184C channels were fitted with a single-exponential function. The relevant time constants, plotted as a function of voltage, showed that the rate of inactivation was 1.5-fold slower for F184C than for WT channels at +60 mV (Fig. 4G, Table 2). The currents recorded from oocytes coexpressing the Kv1.1 subunit were best described with a sum of two exponentials. Again, the F184C mutation slowed the fast component of the time constants nearly twofold, which accounted for 85% of the current (Fig. 1F, Table 2). The superfusion of 10 µM Zn2+ markedly slowed the N-type inactivation rates of F184C channels in the absence and presence of the Kv1.1 subunit (Fig. 4, G and H, Table 2). By contrast, the effects on WT channels were much less pronounced (Fig. 4, G and H, Table 2).
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1.1) before and after the superfusion of 10 µM Zn2+ into the recording chamber. To calculate the time constants of the recovery from N-type inactivation, the current amplitudes were normalized, plotted as a function of the interpulse duration, and fitted with a single-exponential function (Fig. 5, B and D). This analysis revealed that the recovery from inactivation was 1.4-fold slower for the F184C than for the WT channel (Fig. 5B, Table 2). In the presence of the Kv1.1 subunit, the recoveries from inactivation for WT and F184C channels were not significantly different (Fig. 5D, Table 2). Application of 10 µM Zn2+ markedly slowed the recovery of the F184C channel coexpressed with the Kv1.1 subunit (Fig. 5D, Table 2).
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29 and 14 mV with and without Kv1.1 subunits, respectively (Fig. 6, B–D, Table 2), whereas application of 10 µM Zn2+ did not affect the inactivation voltage dependence of WT and F184C channels with or without Kv1.1 subunits (Fig. 6, B–D, Table 2).
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONGRANTSREFERENCES |
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1.1 subunits.
Structural and neurophysiological speculations.
The S1 segment plays a critical role in homo- and heteromultimerization of Kv1.x subunits and appears to stabilize subunit interactions (5, 41, 52). The F184 amino acid resides within the S1 segment. Here, we demonstrate that a phenylalanine-to-cysteine substitution at position 184 and Zn2+ slow the activation kinetics of the channel as well as the N-type inactivation kinetics and reduce the inactivating current amplitude. These results suggest that the F184C mutation and Zn2+ stabilize the closed-channel conformation, thus delaying channel opening. N-type inactivation results from the open channel block operated by the NH2 termini of the Kv1.4 and Kv1.1 subunits (47, 69). The activation and inactivation processes of Kv channels are intimately related. Therefore, it is not surprising that a slower time course of channel opening delays the onset of "ball-and-chain" block mediated by these subunits. On the contrary, an interruption of the normal time course of channel opening by N-type inactivation could account for the apparent faster activation kinetics of WT channels that we observed on coexpression of Kv1.1 subunits (18). The slower time course of F184C channel activation may possibly affect the time course of inactivation. Nevertheless, the functional characterization of Kv1.4-1.1I177N, Kv1.4-1.1E325D, and Kv1.4-1.1V408A channels shows that they undergo slower inactivation kinetics (unpublished results). These latter EA1 mutations either do not change or accelerate the activation kinetics of the channel (1, 16, 31). Therefore, it appears that several EA1 mutations slow N-type inactivation, regardless of their activation kinetics. Thus we cannot exclude the possibility that the F184C mutation and Zn2+ alter the affinity of the receptor site for the inactivation particle by allosteric modifications of the inner vestibule. Alternatively, they could change the overall structure of the nearby T1 domain, altering the predocking site for the inactivation particle before insertion into the inner vestibule (69). A similar mechanism has been suggested by Li and co-workers (34), who proposed that the EA1 mutation V408A, at an equivalent position of the Kv1.4 channel, modulates inactivation through membrane-spanning mechanisms involving S6 (34). Nevertheless, further studies are required to assess with certainty the molecular mechanisms underlying the altered biophysical properties of the channel caused by the mutation and by Zn2+.
Previous data showed that Zn2+ affected current amplitudes, kinetics, and voltage dependence of F184C channels also in the presence of external solutions containing higher concentrations of divalent cations such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ (14). Therefore, surface charge screening appears to be an unlikely mechanism underlying the Zn2+-induced effects on F184C channels. The concentration-response relation for the Zn2+-induced inhibition of the Kv1.4-1.1/Kv1.1 channel was well fitted with the sum of two Hill equations, suggesting the presence of two sites with which Zn2+ interacts. The molecular determinants of these binding sites are unknown. Recent studies of Kv1.5 channels have shown that Zn2+ may act on two distinct binding sites, one of which is located within the pore turret (32, 67, 68). It is possible that at least one Zn2+ binding site is also located within the pore turret of the Kv1.4-1.1 channel, since the amino acid sequence of this region is similar to that of the Kv1.5 channel. Unexpectedly, we also observed that the Kv1.1 subunits markedly decreased KZn for the low-affinity binding site. The mechanism underlying this effect is unknown. Nevertheless, allosteric modifications of the WT protein, induced by the association with the ancillary subunits, may possibly account for this phenomenon. Interestingly, the F184C mutation enhances the Zn2+ sensitivity of the low- and high-affinity sites. These results support the hypothesis that the F184C mutation strengthens the affinity for Zn2+ of sites already existing within the channel protein. Whether this occurs through allosteric changes caused by the mutation or by different mechanisms remains to be established.
The KZn values of the low- and high-affinity binding sites for Zn2+ on Kv1.4-1.1/Kv1.1 channels appear to be within the physiological range for peak Zn2+ concentrations at the synapse. These findings imply that Zn2+ may regulate the transmission of electrical signals by modulating the availability of heteromeric WT channels at synapses where Zn2+ is coreleased. The mossy fibers from the hippocampal CA3 area contain one of the highest concentrations of chelatable Zn2+ in the brain, which is assumed to be coreleased with glutamate. After release into the synaptic cleft and diffusion, hippocampal mossy fiber Zn2+ may modulate different pre- and postsynaptic mechanisms and may be taken up by Zn2+ transport systems or enter the postsynaptic neurons. Recently, it has been reported that Zn2+ released from mossy fibers activates presynaptic ATP-sensitive K+ channels (6, 45). These authors concluded that the activation of such a channel type may rapidly hyperpolarize the cell, reducing Ca2+ influx and glutamate release. On the contrary, our results suggest that Zn2+ facilitates synaptic transmission by depressing the activity of presynaptic delayed-rectifier K+ channels composed of Kv1.1, Kv1.4, and Kv1.1 subunits. Previous data have shown that Kv1.1, Kv1.4, and Kv1.1 subunits are the most likely molecular counterparts of the A-type current recorded from hippocampal mossy fiber boutons, which regulates the action potential duration and the frequency-dependent action potential broadening of the synaptic terminal (23). Here we have shown that Zn2+ reduces the availability of Kv1.4-1.1/Kv1.1 channels. These results support a model by which reduced delayed-rectifier K+ currents broaden presynaptic action potentials during high-frequency stimuli, leading to an enhancement of intracellular Ca2+ signals, glutamate release, and excitatory postsynaptic potential amplitudes.
Functional properties of heteromeric channels altered by the F184C mutation and implications for EA1.
Detailed biochemical studies indicate that Kv1.1, Kv1.4, and Kv1 subunits may also form heteromeric channels in the substantia nigra, globus pallidus, and cortical interneurons (48, 49). The results of the present study demonstrate that the F184C mutation will not only affect the function of the homomeric Kv1.1 channel, but it will also alter the biophysical properties of channels composed of the human Kv1.1, Kv1.4, and, Kv1.1 subunits. This evidence strongly suggests that the electrical properties of neurons within these brain structures, which coexpress these subunits, will be altered by the EA1 mutation F184C. The currents arising from the activation of Kv1.4-1.1/Kv1 channels possess A-type K+ current characteristics. A-type currents regulate the firing properties of neurons, their response to input stimuli, the propagation of axonal action potential, and their backpropagation in dendrites (13, 17, 28). Because of the localization of Kv1 channel complexes on axons and terminals of hippocampal synapses, it is expected that the action potential propagation and glutamate release might be modified by the mutation (44). Precisely how will the F184C mutation affect nerve cell properties? The functional characterization of WT and F184C channels, with and without Kv1.1 subunits, showed that the EA1 mutation causes opposite effects on the biophysical properties of the channel. On one hand, the F184C mutation downregulates the heteromeric channel function by slowing the activation rate and increasing the time to peak current amplitude. On the other hand, this mutation increases channel availability by decreasing the rate and the amount of current undergoing N-type inactivation and by shifting the voltage dependence of inactivation in the positive direction. The relative weight of these opposite effects has yet to be determined; therefore, it is difficult to predict specifically how they will affect the electrical properties of distinct neurons.
The functional characterization of the Zn2+ effects on F184C channels with or without Kv1.1 subunits showed that this ion 1) inhibited the F184C channels significantly more than the WT channels, 2) further slowed the activation rate of the channel, 3) further increased the time to reach peak current amplitude, 4) further decreased the rate and the amount of current undergoing N-type inactivation, and 5) slowed the repriming of the channel. First, these results demonstrate that the EA1 mutation F184C will not only sensitize the homomeric Kv1.1 channel to extracellular Zn2+, but it will also endow the heteromeric channels with a higher sensitivity to Zn2+ when the mutated subunit is associated with the human Kv1.4 and Kv1.1 subunits. Although Zn2+ also exerts some opposite effects, it appears that this metal ion mainly depresses F184C channel functions. Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that the electrical properties of mossy fibers are likely to be altered by the combined effects of the F184C mutation and Zn2+. In particular, the reduced availability of Kv1.4-1.1F184C/Kv1.1 channels, because of their increased sensitivity to Zn2+, may further increase the excitability and the frequency-dependent action potential broadening of the synaptic terminals, leading to an enhancement of intracellular Ca2+ signals, glutamate release, and excitatory postsynaptic potential amplitudes. Interestingly, EA1 patients report cognitive symptoms during an attack. An alteration of the transmission of the electrical signals within the hippocampus may possibly underlie this symptom (42). Moreover, epileptiform brain activity has also been associated with intracranial administration of Zn2+ salts, and changes in Zn2+ modulation of GABA receptors have been implicated in the etiology of epilepsy. Interestingly, patients bearing the F184C mutation have shown enhanced seizure susceptibility in addition to typical EA1 symptoms (60). Whether Zn2+ plays a role in triggering epilepsy-like symptoms in this kindred remains an intriguing hypothesis.
In conclusion, one major finding of this study is that heteromeric channels composed of the human Kv1.1 and Kv1.4 subunits have low- and high-affinity binding sites for Zn2+, which are likely to regulate channel availability at distinct presynaptic membranes. We also showed that the EA1 mutation F184C alters the biophysical properties and the Zn2+-induced modulation of such heteromeric channels with or without Kv1.1 subunits. These molecular mechanisms of EA1 are likely to exacerbate the symptoms in patients harboring the F184C mutations by altering the transmission of signals within nerve cells expressing this heteromeric channel type. Direct evidence of distinct electrical events modulated by Zn2+ and of overt behavioral changes caused by the F184C mutation shall be provided by the in vitro and in vivo analysis of wild-type and knock-in mice harboring such point mutation (2, 37).
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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Present address of A. Cusimano: Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare, CNR, Via Ugo La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy.
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FOOTNOTES |
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The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
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| ||||||||||||
) and F184C (
) channels. B: dose-response curves for WT/
+ A2/1 + ([Zn2+]/KZn 2)
, where A1 and A2 are relative amplitudes of each component, nH1 and nH2 are the Hill coefficients, and KZn 1 and KZn 2 are the equilibrium dissociation constants for Zn2+ binding to the high- and low-affinity sites, respectively. Solid and dashed lines show fit with the Hill equation before and after application of ZnCl2, respectively. Correlation coefficient (R2) = 0.99. Values are means ± SE of 6–12 cells.
) plotted as a function of membrane potential for WT (circles) and Kv1.4-1.1F184C (squares) channels recorded before (open symbols) and after (filled symbols) application of 10 µM Zn2+. Activating current traces, evoked by 10-ms depolarizing pulses from –80 to +80 mV, were fitted with a monoexponential function from which time constants were calculated and plotted as a function of membrane potential. Solid curves show fit with the following equation: 
